God has no religion; religious divisions are man-made.

After watching a few episodes of the hilarious Punjabi comedy series Hasb-e-Haal and Digital Rangeelay on YouTube, I was pleasantly surprised to discover that ordinary Pakistani Punjabis are hardly any different from Indian Punjabis. Sartorial styles, facial appearances, racial stock, culinary inclinations, customs, and language mark the similarities. If an episode doesn’t explicitly identify itself as a Pakistani show and doesn’t have reference to Pakistani locations or religious greetings, you might mistake it for an Indian one. Even the comedic situations they portray are remarkably realistic, mirroring the realities of Indian families, society, polity, bureaucratic framework, and police setup. It is widely acknowledged that Indian films, film stars, and songs are popular in Pakistan. Whereas Pakistani Ghazal singers and television serials are equally famous in India. I have encountered numerous women, both young and old, who express a strong desire to flaunt Pakistani suits as a part of their wardrobe. Interactions with Pakistanis have always been delightful and cordial. I have many friends, both common businessmen and bureaucrats, who have fondly narrated the tales of Pakistani hospitality, which, they feel, we in India can’t match.

Where lies the difference then?

With a heavy heart, I must assert that religion plays a crucial role in the formation of two nations. Anger and hostility have marred Indo-Pak relations since the very inception of Pakistan, a grave misfortune that persists today. Both countries spend millions of rupees in the defence sector. India ranks number one in arms imports, while Pakistan is closely following at number five. There appears to be no hope for a thaw between our political and military hostilities, while the common people of both nations indulge in bonhomie whenever they meet.

Do religions advocate hatred and violence against human beings who follow a different religion? I have heard right since my childhood that each religion in the world teaches love, humanity, peace, brotherhood, and respect for other religions. To follow and practice a particular religion is one’s choice, as religion teaches morality and values to become a decent human being. One’s birth in a family and society is entirely random and unplanned. How can one religion be inferior or superior to the other? Regrettably, avarice and self-aggrandisement infused the leaders who encouraged religious wars. They distorted the religious teachings with their convoluted interpretations and imposed wars on their populace and others. Their real aim was to win more territories to administer and gain resources for their populations. History is replete with stories of victorious leaders allowing their armies to plunder and loot the vanquished lands, taking booty and enslaving the defeated people, including men, women, and children. The conquered people endured unspeakable atrocities, decapitations, and killings. Do religions enjoin these? I think the answer is a big ‘no’. This phenomenon has occurred regardless of whether the attackers were Arabs, Mongols, Turks, Afghans, Portuguese, Dutch, British, or French.

The Indian story is very old…

The seeds of India’s partition in 1947 into Pakistan (including Bangladesh) were sown much earlier in 712 AD, when a formidable Arab army comprising 6,000 Syrian cavalry, a large camel corps, and a baggage train of 3000 camels, under Muhammad bin Qasim, invaded Sindh. Five ballistae, i.e., the huge catapults for hurling large stones as missiles, were shipped by sea to join the main army at Debal, an inland commercial port, near present-day Karachi. 500 men could operate each ballista, which possessed devastating bombardment capabilities. Many more troops and adventurers joined his army on its journey, propelled by religious zeal and prospects of plundering the prosperous province. Qasim, then just 17, was the governor of Persia, and he came following the orders of his uncle Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the Arab governor of Iraq, of the Umayyad Caliph, based in Damascus.

Arabs had rich trading traditions with India since ancient times, through Indian ports on the western coastline along Gujarat, Malabar, and Kerala. These commercial interactions continued even after Arabia was influenced by Islam, and the Arab Caliphs switched from trade to empire-building. Because of the tolerant religious attitudes of Indian Kings, Arab traders could build their mosques and homes in several port cities and even in royal capitals. Arabs could freely practice their religion and maintain their unique lifestyles. Arabs, because of the eclectic outlook of some Indian kings, also got employed in high administrative and military positions. A few kings had also recruited Arab forces in their armies. Moplahs (from mapilla, meaning bridegroom or child), a Muslim community in Malabar, developed from the matrimonial alliances between Arabs and the local population. That is why even the present Kerala society is a rainbow of religions and cultures.

In those times, Sindh was ruled by Raja Dahir, the son of a Brahman named Chach, who had succeeded Rai Sahasi II of the Rai dynasty and founded the Brahman dynasty. Rai dynasty was Buddhist, and a large minority of the population was Buddhist.

Historians have ascribed two reasons for Muhammad’s invasion:

First, the ambitious Arab Caliphs believed that God was on their side, and they were invincible! With their religious fervour and military might, they won territories spanning Chinese frontiers to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, covering Central Asia, Afghanistan, the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, and Southern France. All that was achieved in almost a century after the death of Prophet Muhammad (in 632 AD). Since they had already won Afghanistan and Persia, they were ready for expansion into India. Sindh shared a border with Arab-conquered Baluchistan. In the past, India valiantly repelled Arab invasions at Thane (636 AD), Bharuch (643 AD), and Debal in Sindh (643 AD).

Second, the Kings of Sindh could not control pirates operating from their coasts; they regularly targeted Arab shipping from their bases in Kutch, Debal and Kathiawar. The incident that sparked the invasion was:

“Pirates operating in the Indus Delta had captured an Arab ship off the port city of Debal. The ship was carrying gifts from the king of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to the Caliph Al-Walid I. Besides plundering the ship, the pirates also abducted the Arab girls who were on board. They were the orphan daughters of a Muslim merchant who had died in Sri Lanka. Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq, on learning about the incident, wrote to King Dahir, demanding that the girls be released forthwith, the pirates involved be punished, and compensation be paid for the damage so caused. King Dahir expressed that he couldn’t fulfil the demands as he had no control over the pirates. His reply appeared to be specious as many coastal rulers of India in those times were known to connive with the pirates and share their booty.” Hajjaj sent two punitive expeditions, one by land and the other by sea. But both were unsuccessful.

Under Muhammad bin Qasim, this was the third expedition to conquer Sindh and teach King Dahir a lesson. Muhammad adopted the short but hazardous Makran (Baluchistan) seacoast route. It was the same treacherous, arid route through which Alexander had retreated from India in the 4th century BC. Though facing some initial setbacks, the Arab army stormed into Debal Fort, where King Dahir’s garrison was well entrenched. Though King Dahir’s army offered stiff resistance, it couldn’t withstand the bombardments by the lethal ballistae. For three days, Debal witnessed ruthless carnage and plunder of its wealth! It was Muhammad’s strategy to terrify the chieftains of Sindh into submission. Muhammad killed all the adults who refused to become Muslims. He also enslaved their wives and children. Muhammad sent the customary one-fifth of the booty (ghanima) to the Caliph’s treasury, dividing the rest among his soldiers. To secure his line of communication and supply, Muhammad established a garrison at Debal. Then he proceeded northwards along the river Indus to confront King Dahir.

On the way, he conquered Nerun, which is south of modern Hyderabad (in present Pakistan). Sehawan, a commercial centre, surrendered without much resistance. Despite their valiant fight, the Jats of lower Sindh ultimately lost. While camped on the east bank of the Indus, Muhammad Qasim, after bargaining with the river Jats and boatmen, secured the aid of Mokah Basayah, “the King of the island of Bet.” With their assistance, he crossed the river in June 712 AD, and the forces of the Thakore of Bhatta and the western Jats joined him.

He moved to the fortress of Brahmanabad (north of Hyderabad), where Dahir was ensconced. Upon reaching there, a fierce battle ensued with Dahir’s army, which also included Eastern Jats. Dahir, seated on an elephant, bravely joined the fight, which continued throughout the day. An Arab soldier’s naphtha arrow set Dahir’s howdah on fire. Dahir dismounted and fought valiantly, but the evening saw his death. His soldiers fled in panic while the Arab army indulged in a wanton massacre. Dahir’s severed head was sent as a trophy to the Caliph along with the customary share of booty plundered in the campaign.

When the Arabs barged into the fortress, one of Dahir’s queens committed sati. Another queen, Rani Ladi, surrendered and finally married Muhammad. They captured Dahir’s two maiden daughters, Suryadevi and Parmaldevi, and sent them to the Caliph as homage.

Muhammad used both diplomacy and terror to win over Sindh’s chieftains and populace. He executed those who resisted, captured their women and children, and desecrated their temples. He provided complete protection to those who submitted to him, allowing them to continue with their lives. Buddhist natives were peace-loving, non-violent, and into business and commercial activities. They readily surrendered. Muhammad spared the artisans, merchants, and common people while beheading all the enemy soldiers. Muhammad imposed jizya (poll tax) on civilians who had not converted to Islam. He allowed them to continue worshipping their idols and even to construct more temples. Brahmans were restored to their pre-eminent position in society, and they, in turn, persuaded the native people to submit to Arabs and pay poll tax. Brahmans were allowed to continue the practice of collecting their customary fees from merchants, Hindu chiefs, and the common people.

After organising the administration of the conquered territories, Muhammad advanced northwards, fighting many battles on the way, and captured the city of Multan in early 713 AD. Muhammad ruled Sindh for three years and was recalled later by the Caliph. However, Muhammad, who had launched lightning raids and fought ferocious battles, himself met a tragic end. The new Caliph in Iraq reportedly chained him and imprisoned him, leading to his swift death.

The Umayyad Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz (717–720 AD) vigorously pursued a policy of converting the Hindu princes to Islam. King Dahir’s son Jaisinha, too, embraced Islam but later renounced it, and died fighting on the battlefield. Despite many raids further into the interior of India, reaching up to Kathiawar and Ujjain, Arabs couldn’t succeed in winning more territories. All their victories in Gujarat and Rajasthan were transient. However, Sindh saw the consolidation of Arab rule for three centuries. This helped to strengthen the Arab trade on the west coast of India. Arabs also established new settlements on the East Coast, extending as far as Southeast Asia. It also resulted in an amalgamation of Arab tribal life and Sindhi tribal patterns. Arabs adopted local customs and manners. The Quran was translated into Sindhi in 886 CE at the request of a local Hindu chief. The urban population of Sindh started speaking both Arabic and Sanskrit. Leather workers of Kufa trained the tanners of Sindh and Makran in the art of leather tanning with dates, leading to the production of softer leather. Leather shoes from Sindh became premium luxury items for the Caliph’s territories. The upgraded breeds of Sindh camels were in demand in neighbouring countries. The Abbasid Courts translated Sanskrit works on medicine, astronomy, ethics, and administration into Arabic and Persian.

Many people of Sindh, who were previously Hindus and Buddhists, converted to Islam and assimilated into Islamic culture. Similar conversions took place in Punjab when Mahmud Ghazna attacked India in a series of raids starting in 1001 AD to 1025 AD, followed by Muhammad Ghori’s attacks in 1191 and 1192 AD.

So, mostly through force and terror and on a few occasions voluntarily, the people of Sindh and Punjab, who shared the same cultural heritage and religion, got divided into Hindus and Muslims. As the conquerors didn’t want to cause a major disturbance in the society for administrative reasons, they only encouraged but didn’t force conversions later.  However, the British policy of divide and rule kept on drawing a wedge between the Hindus and Muslims, leading ultimately to the partition of India.

Alas! The people on both sides of the Indo-Pak border are largely the same…but for the deep religious division, which later got amplified behind the veneer of politics…. and then the two nations.

References:

1. The Age of Wrath, A History of Delhi Sultanate by Abraham Eraly
2. The Wonder that was India II by S A A Rizvi
3. Multiple articles on Wikipedia relating to History of Sindh and Arab invasions of India.

#Arab invasion of India #Indian and Pakistani Punjabis #King Dahir #Sindh #Muhammad bin Qasim